Federalism Class 10 Notes: Civics Chapter 2 Revision

These federalism class 10 notes cover Civics Chapter 2 for the 2026-27 session. After the horizontal power-sharing you studied in Chapter 1, we now turn to the vertical division of power — how authority is shared between a central government and state or local governments. This page summarises the NCERT textbook chapter in a tight, exam-ready format.

What is Federalism? Key Features

Federalism is a system of government in which power is divided between a central authority and various constituent units of the country (NCERT, p. 15). Usually, a federation has two levels: one government for the entire country, and governments at the level of provinces or states. Both levels enjoy their power independent of the other.

Federal vs Unitary Systems

School Analogy: Federal vs Unitary

Think of a unitary system like a school where the Principal sets every rule and Department Heads must follow every instruction exactly. A federal system is like a school where the Principal handles school-wide policy (examinations, fee structure) but each Department Head — Science, Humanities, Sports — has independent authority over their own subject choices, teaching methods, and internal assessments. The Principal cannot simply order the Science Department to change its lab rules; those powers belong to the department.

The 7 Key Features of Federalism

• Two or more tiers of government.
• Each tier has its own jurisdiction in legislation, taxation, and administration.
• Jurisdictions are specified in the constitution, guaranteeing each tier’s existence.
• Fundamental provisions cannot be unilaterally changed — consent of both levels is required.
• Courts interpret the constitution; the highest court acts as an umpire in disputes between tiers.
• Revenue sources for each level are clearly specified for financial autonomy.
• Dual objectives: safeguard unity while accommodating regional diversity.

Coming Together vs Holding Together Federations

Federations are formed through two different historical routes, and the balance of power between the centre and the states differs accordingly (NCERT, p. 16).

Memory Device: ISB

To remember the holding together federations, use the mnemonic ISB — India, Spain, Belgium. Think of ISB as the name of a bus that holds a large country together by dividing its own power among its regions.

How is India a Federal Country?

The Indian Constitution declares India as a Union of States and does not even use the word “federation” — yet it is based on federal principles (NCERT, p. 16). The Constitution originally provided a two-tier system: the Union Government and the State Governments. A third tier of panchayats and municipalities was added later.

The Three Lists of Legislative Powers

Residuary subjects — subjects not on any list, such as computer software — are legislated by the Union Government (NCERT, p. 17).

Concurrent List conflicts: If a state law clashes with a Union law on the same Concurrent List subject, the law made by the Union Government prevails.

Judiciary’s Role

The High Courts and the Supreme Court decide any dispute about the division of powers between the Union and State Governments. The judiciary oversees the implementation of constitutional provisions and procedures (NCERT, p. 17).

Special Status States and Union Territories

Not all states in India have identical powers. Some states enjoy special provisions under Article 371 — such as Assam, Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh, and Mizoram — to protect indigenous land rights, culture, and preferential employment (NCERT, p. 17). Non-residents cannot buy land in some of these states.

Union Territories — like Chandigarh, Lakshadweep, and Delhi — enjoy very little power because they are too small to become a state or could not be merged with existing states. The Central Government runs these areas directly.

Rigid Amendment Process

The power-sharing arrangement is basic to the Constitution’s structure. To change it:

• Both Houses of Parliament must pass the amendment with at least a two-thirds majority.
• The amendment must be ratified by legislatures of at least half of the states.

This prevents the Centre from unilaterally altering the federal balance.

How is Federalism Practised in India?

Constitutional provisions alone are not enough. The real success of Indian federalism comes from democratic politics. Three practical ways strengthened it: linguistic states, language policy, and centre-state relations (NCERT, p. 19).

Linguistic States

Starting in 1947, state boundaries were redrawn so people speaking the same language lived in the same state. Some states were created on culture, ethnicity, or geography instead of language — like Nagaland, Uttarakhand, and Jharkhand (NCERT, p. 19). Despite early fears, linguistic states made the country more united and administration easier.

Language Policy

The Constitution did not give any language the status of national language. Hindi was identified as the official language, but it is the mother tongue of only about 40% of Indians. Besides Hindi, 22 scheduled languages are recognised by the Constitution (NCERT, p. 20). The flexibility of leaders — continuing English alongside Hindi after 1965 — helped avoid the kind of conflict Sri Lanka faced (NCERT, p. 20).

Centre-State Relations

For a long time, the same party ruled at the Centre and in most states, undermining state autonomy. The ruling party at the Centre often dismissed state governments run by rival parties. This changed after 1990 with the rise of regional parties and coalition governments at the Centre — no single party got a clear majority (NCERT, p. 20). A new culture of power-sharing emerged, and a major Supreme Court judgement made it difficult for the Centre to dismiss state governments arbitrarily.

Comparison: Before 1990 vs After 1990

Linguistic Diversity of India: Scheduled Languages

The Census of India 2011 recorded over 1,300 distinct mother tongues, grouped under 121 major languages. Of these, 22 languages are included in the Eighth Schedule and are called Scheduled Languages (NCERT, p. 22). India is perhaps the most diverse country in the world in terms of languages.

Key figures from Census 2011:

• Hindi — mother tongue of 43.63% of Indians.
• Bengali — 8.03%, the second largest.

Practical insight: No single language is the mother tongue of the majority of our population. Even Hindi, the largest, covers under 50% even with second and third language speakers added. This is exactly why India’s language policy succeeded by avoiding a single national language — the policy accommodated diversity, respected regional identities, and prevented the kind of backlash seen in Sri Lanka.

Decentralisation in India: The Third Tier

Decentralisation is when power is taken away from Central and State governments and given to local government (NCERT, p. 25). The basic idea is that many issues are best settled at the local level, where residents have better knowledge of local problems, can spend money wisely, and can directly participate in decision-making.

Before 1992, panchayats and municipalities existed but were under state control, with irregular elections and no powers or resources of their own. A major step was taken in 1992 through Constitutional amendments to make the third tier powerful and effective.

The 1992 Constitutional Amendments

• Regular elections to local government bodies are now constitutionally mandatory.
• Seats reserved for SCs, STs, and OBCs in elected bodies and executive heads.
• At least one-third of all positions reserved for women.
• An independent State Election Commission in each state to conduct panchayat and municipal elections.
• State governments required to share powers and revenue with local government bodies (varies from state to state).

Rural Structure: Panchayati Raj

The Gram Sabha — all voters of the village — meets at least twice or thrice a year to approve the gram panchayat’s budget and review its performance.

Urban Structure

A Different Context: Brazil

Porto Alegre, a city in Brazil, set up a parallel organisation alongside the municipal council so local inhabitants could make real budget decisions (NCERT, p. 26). The 13 lakh residents participate in sector meetings, and about 20,000 people join the decision-making exercise each year. This ensures money is not spent only on rich colonies — buses run to poor areas, and slum-dwellers cannot be evicted without resettlement. It is a real-life example of participatory democracy combined with decentralisation.

Definitions to Remember

Worked Examples: Scenario-Based Questions

Scenario 1: A State Government and Police Protocols

Scenario 2: A Dispute Between Two States Over River Water Sharing

Common Mistakes in Federalism Questions

Exam Notes: What Examiners Look For

• The three lists frequently appear as matching or 1-mark questions. A full-marks answer requires exact mapping — police to State List, defence to Union List, education to Concurrent List. A single wrong match loses the whole answer.
• 5-mark questions often ask you to distinguish between coming together and holding together federations. A full-marks answer lists examples of each, states which one is more powerful (Centre vs States), and explains whether constituent units have equal or unequal powers.
• 5-mark questions on “how federalism is practised in India” expect three ways: linguistic states, language policy, and centre-state relations. Missing any one of the three costs marks.
• Decentralisation questions ask for the 1992 amendments. A full-marks answer must include: regular elections, reservations for SC/ST/OBC and women (one-third), State Election Commission, and revenue sharing — not just one or two.
• Centre-State relations after 1990 is a favourite 3-5 mark question. Mention coalition governments, the rise of regional parties, and the Supreme Court judgement limiting arbitrary dismissal of state governments.
• Textbook exercises (NCERT, p. 27) Q8 and Q9 test direct recall of the federal feature and the three lists — practice grouping subjects under the correct list as asked.

Compact Revision Recap

• Definition: Federalism = vertical division of power between a central authority and constituent units.
• 7 features: Two or more tiers, own jurisdiction, constitutional guarantee, dual consent for constitutional change, courts as umpire, revenue autonomy, dual objective of unity and diversity.
• 2 routes: Coming Together (USA, Switzerland, Australia — equal power, strong states) vs Holding Together (India, Spain, Belgium — Centre more powerful, unequal units).
• India’s structure: Three lists — Union (defence, banking), State (police, agriculture), Concurrent (education, forests). Residuary subjects go to Union. Article 371 gives some states special status. Union Territories have little power.
• Amendment: Power-sharing changes need two-thirds majority in Parliament plus half of state legislatures’ ratification.
• Practice: Linguistic states, language policy (Hindi official, no national language, 22 scheduled languages), centre-state relations shifted after 1990 with coalition governments.
• Decentralisation: 1992 amendments brought mandatory elections, SC/ST/OBC and women reservations (one-third), State Election Commission, and revenue sharing. Rural: Gram Panchayat → Panchayat Samiti → Zilla Parishad. Urban: Municipality → Municipal Corporation.

Frequently Asked Questions

What is the exact difference between Union and Federal government in India?

The Indian Constitution uses the term “Union of States” rather than “federation.” The country is a federal system in practice, with power shared between the Union Government and state governments as per the Constitution. The term “Union” emphasises that India is an indestructible union of destructible states — states cannot secede, but boundaries can be redrawn.

What happens if there is a conflict on a Concurrent List subject?

If a state law conflicts with a Union law on the same Concurrent List subject, the law made by the Union Government prevails (NCERT, p. 16). The state law is overridden to maintain uniformity on matters of common interest.

Why were Union Territories created if India is a federation?

Union Territories are areas too small to become independent states or which could not be merged with existing states — for example, Chandigarh, Lakshadweep, and Delhi (NCERT, p. 17). The Central Government runs these areas directly with special powers, because a full state government structure may be impractical for such regions.

What are residuary powers and who holds them in India?

Residuary subjects are matters not mentioned in any of the three lists — such as computer software, which emerged after the Constitution was framed. In India, the Union Government has the power to legislate on residuary subjects (NCERT, p. 17). This ensures that new subjects do not fall through the cracks simply because the framers did not anticipate them.

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Reference: NCERT Class 10 Democratic Politics II textbook, chapter Federalism. For the source chapter, see the official NCERT Democratic Politics II textbook page. Our complete Civics notes for Class 10 cover all chapters in the syllabus. You can also revisit Chapter 1: Power Sharing for the horizontal division of power, or continue to Chapter 3: Gender, Religion and Caste. These notes belong to our Class 10 notes collection under the broader CBSE notes section.